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[The Evolution of Religions in India]
In the early days, India had a great civilization. From 3000-2000 BC, Harappa and Mohenjodaro were the great civilizations there. The actual occupants of India who lived there were the Dravidia race. The Dravidia were the indigenous people who have lived in Harrapa which was located in Punjab and North Karachi around 3000-2000 BC [1].
Dravidia was known to believe in politheist that is believing in multiple Gods. This can be segregated into many for instance, God in fertility and God in prosperity [2]. According to Ernest Mackay in his book titled Early Indus Civilizations, most of the Indus worshipped animals such as crocodiles and elephants and trees like peepal [3]. Moreover, rituals such as slaughtering animals were held to be presented in front oftheir Gods. Apart from that, they found a man-made pool where a ritual called “Great Bath” was performed. The “Great Bath” was the holy bath ritual and this was found in Mohenjodaro. The purpose of this worship and ritual was to show their gratitude towards the Gods to receive blessing and prosperity upon them [4].
There is a famous theory interpreted as the change of the India social life structure in those days. This theory relates to Arya entering India. Around 1800-1000 BC, the Arya which was originated from Iran entered India. The word Arya means noble and they were noble race. Their facial features were fair skin with pointed nose and were famous for their art of war. The Dravidia were not good in war and therefore they were defeated by the Arya. Hence, the Dravidia people migrated to the South part of India [5]. The evidence of this war was proven by the archaeologist who performed the excavation in Harappa. They found lots of dead human skeleton which proves that the war happened between Arya and Dravidia and Arya defeated Dravidia. Apart from that, the Harappa city was demolished [6].
Introduction of Monotheism By Arya to India
In India, the structure of the religion was influenced by the Arya until Brahma was introduced or also known as Hindu today. Way before Arya entered India, they had their own belief and it was called Arya Dharma [7]. Dharma means ‘Way of Life’ and therefore Arya Dharma means ‘Arya Way of Life’[8]. The concept of Arya Dharma is that they believe in one God and this is referring to the monotheism [9]. Most of the westerner researchers claimed that Arya Dharma was influenced by the Zoroaster religion which was originated from Iran. This is because there are similarities in the Book of Veda and the Holy Book of Zoroaster that is the Gathas according to Mary Boyce in her research from the Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices.
Another source claims that Arya Dharma was influenced by the Abraham or Ibrahim from Mesopotamia. Prof Uthaya Naidu mentioned in his book titled “Bible of Aryan Invasions: Aryan Invasions & Genocide of Negroes, Semites & Mongols The Bible of Aryan Invasions” that in between 1500 BC and 800 BC there were 4 attacks following by the Aryan entering India. The 4 attacks were called:
1. Arya Rigvedic (1500 BC)
2. Aryan II (1400 BC)
3. Ras Arya Krishnaite (1200 BC)
4. Ras Arya Mahabharata (900-800 BC)
The first invasion which is known as Arya Rigvedic was the major attack caused by Arya to India and fought with Dravidia which was the first people to attack the civilization in Indus river. It resulted in Dravidia was defeated and were expelled to South India. In the following century which was known as the second entry of Arya to India it was known as Indo-Arya civilization. The Arya conquered two main parts in India: Punjab and Doab [10]. After the entrance of Aryan II to India, the Book of Veda was written in Sanskrit as the main language. This is because the Aryan II spread their belief and religion to India. The belief and religion that was brought to India by Arya was influenced by monotheism.
They worshipped a God named Brahman. Apart from that, they also believed in multiple Gods that represents world such as Pretivi as the God of Earth, Surya as the God of Sun, Vayu as the God of Wind, Varuna as the God of Ocean and Agni as the God of Fire [11]. Although the names of the Gods had only existed after the writing of Book of Veda, the spiritual belief towards the Gods were there way before that [12].
Vedic Era
When Aryan started to migrate to India, the mixture of the culture and religion occurred and therefore this was how the Book of Veda was written around 1400 to 1000 BC. It was known as the Vedic Era [13]. The Book of Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Athraya Veda were written based on the mixture of Arya theology and Dravidia. Moreover, they had also written another Holy book which was called Upanishads. The content of Books of Veda and Upanishads were combined and called as the Holy Book of Sruti was revealed [14].
Veda was originally called as Brahma religion and the language of this religion was called the Sanskrit. The believers mastered this language [15]. Originally, the Sanskrit was mastered by the Aryan only. But after mastering the language, the people were slowly not interested to master the language anymore. Hence, the mixture of the Sanskrit language with the language used by Dravidia, came in the new languages such as the Kannada, Telugu and Malayali. These new languages were originated from the ancient language of Proto Dravida which was mixed from the halt of the usage of the Sanskrit by the Brahmin [16].
This is because the Brahmin or the priests of the Brahmin were originally from the Arya clan and therefore, they were responsible to teach the Indians in Sanskrit language [17].
The Birth of Non-Caste Religion in India
In the 7th Century BC, the Brahmin had introduced the caste system that is the hierarchical system [18]. This hierarchical system consisting of religionist, rulers (government), companies and those people who followed the religion. In 600 BC, a ruler for the Jainism religion came into picture and was known as Vardhmana or Mahavira. This religion did not practice the caste system like the Brahma did. The language used in Jainism was Prakrit but this religion was only practiced inside India. No sign of development of this religion outside India.
After a few years later, around 563 BC, the Siddharta Gautama Buddha was born. He introduced his religion which was called Buddha without the caste system. He used Pali as the langugage to convey the religion. He had so many students under him and this made the Buddhism to be spread world wide. When these two religions (Jainism and Buddhism) were developing, the Vedic or the Brahma was slowly degenerating.
The Introduction to the writing of Holy Book of Smriti
As the time, culture and geography changed, the Sanskrit language had diminished. But the effort was still there to make sure that the Sanskrit language preserved. Wendy Doniger mentioned in her book titled The Hindus: An Alternative History that a new wave existed which had historical and saga elements and these books are Mahabhrata and Ramayana. The writing of these scriptures started in 300 BC-200 C and some historians claimed that the writing of the two books started in 400 BC [19].
This time around was known as the Wiracarita where a big epic war occurred between Arjuna, Krishna (Mahabhrata) and Sri Rama (Ramayana). In Mahabhrata, it consists of stories that relates to the existence of multiple Gods that led to the development of the Book of Purana [20]. The writing and the development of this Book was meant to maintain the usage of Sanskrit language among the Aryan people in India.
During 300 BC till 500 C was the time of new development in Brahma. It was known as Puranic time where the writing of the other scriptures began besides the Book of Sruti (Veda and Upanishads) in order to be used in Brahma [21]. The writing of the other Holy Book besides Sruti was known as the writing of Smriti. Among the Holy Books that were written during this time comprising Books of Sutra Dharma, Shastras, Mahabhrata, Ramayana, Bhagavad Gita, Pura and others.
During Puranic time, the construction of the statue of Greece or Hellenism had started to enter India and influenced the Brahma. Apart from that, Dravidia was the main religion that introduced polytheism and it also reflect in the writings of the holy books and Purana story-line. In the early history, the Brahma was not known as worshipperof multiple Gods (polytheism). They only believed in one God. Around 1500 BC to 300 BC (Vedic), no signs of holy statues found and worshipped by the people during that time.
Why the era of Vedic do not have statue?
In the era of vedic (1500 SM- 500 SM), there were no idol or image of God worshipped by the people during that time. It is due to the law which forbid to create idols in the image of God as stated in the book of Veda and Upanishads (Sruti). Furthermore, the book Veda and Upanishads should be their reference. Following verse shows the prohibition of worshipping idols:
1) “na tasya pratima asti
“God do not have any image.” (Yajurveda 32:3)
2) “shudhama poapvidham”
“God do not have established body and it is pure.” (Yajurveda 40:8)
3) “Andhatama pravishanti ye asambhuti mupaste”
“Those worshipper of nature (air, water, fire or soil) will enter darkness and even goes in deeper for those who worship idols.(Yajurveda 40:9)
Even during this era, the characteristics of monotheism of God was emphasized in the Rig Veda and Upanishads.
1) “Ekam sadvipra bahudhaavadanti
“God is one and intelligent people praise God with various name” ( Rigveda book 1: hymn 164 verse 46)
2) “Ekam eva advityam Brahman”[22]
“God is one, there is no two” (Chandogya Upanishad chapter 6 hymn 2 verse 1)
Moreover, there are many verses similar to it but the religion started to grow with the additional Holy Book in year of 300 SM. It is known as the wave writing of the Smriti Book which gave an impact towards Brahma religion till the story of God’s and King’s that rapidly persuaded by own verse interpretations. It can be seen in the book of Mahabhrata and the book of Purana. The book of Purana contained many parts which well known as Mahapurana which divided into 18 books such as;
a) Brahmapurana, b) Padmapurana, c) Visnupurana, d) Bhagavatapurana, e) Naradapurana, f) Markandeypurana, g) Agnipurana, h) Bhavisyapurana, i) Brahmavaiavartapurana, j) Lingapurana, k) Varahapurana, l) Skandapurana, m) Kurmapurana, n) Matsyapurana, o) Garudapurana, dan p) Brahmandapurana.
This book was gathered within a long duration and known as the written period of Puranic. [23] There were mixed and additional information with regards to the question of God in Brahma religion happened in this era. It started from this era which the doctrine of pantheism and polytheism started to expand and grow within the Brahma adherent. The doctrine which believed that everything are able to provide benefits which constituted the elements of God (pantheism), worshipping idols and make God more than one which align with the incarnation of God. It undergo through creature body with various types (avatar) and henotheism.
New command of inventing Idols
The book Purana encourage the Hindu adherent to invent idols. There are text in the book Matsya Purana which explained about it and located under the topic of Arsetektur (base on the reference of I Wayan Maswinara.
“There are idols that must be placed inside the temple. The idol of God Visnu need to be designed with four hands and eight hands. If the design consist of 8 hands, the hand, we must hold the Sankha (Skin of a shell), gada, arrow and lotus. Left hand need to hold the arc, Padma, and a cakra. If they invent only four hands, gada and Padma consist in my right hand while cakra and sankha will be on left hand. Visnu will be pictured by standing on the early. Garuda the king of bird will move around it. Then, Garuda will be at the right leg of Visnu. Idols of Laksmi Goddess will be on the left side of Visnu idols and Laksmi idols need to hold the Lotus flower. The good idols will be created by gold, silver, copper, jewelry, stone, wood and a mix of metal. The size of Gods and Goddess has to be true.”[25]
Same goes to other Gods. Purana has outlined the picture and image of their God until the idols needs to be created. For example, the face and structure of Siva has been outlined in the Purana:
”Idol of Lord Siva need to be created using a loose long hair and need to put a moon on the forehead. The idols need to describe Siva at the age of 16 years old. Siva need to wear clothes which created by animal fur and has snake necklace on his neck. The ear will be attach with peacock fur. If the stick need to be attached, it has to be on the left side. Furthermore, Siva ride on a cow which the idols have two hands and if the idols of Siva is made in situation of dancing, the idols need to consist of 10 hands. Moreover, if the idols is meant to show Lord Siva destroying the Tripura, the idols need to have 16 hands.”[26]
The book of Purana explained the story about the requirement of designing the Idols. It shows the development which do not belongs to the actual teaching of Veda. Even Siva did not mention in the earliest book such as Veda and Upanishads. [27] In the Era in which is the rising of second Hindu religion which there were many additional doctrine of the Veda teaching.
In the era of Puranic, the religion of Hindu was influenced by polytheism. Besides, the development and expanding of worshipping the idols at temples happened. After that, the religion of Brahma started to extinct. During the rulings time of Asoka in India, under the empire of Maurya. King Asoka declared the Buddhism as their official religion. In year 269-232 SM. King Asoka emphasized on the language usage of Pali in order to spread the religion of Buddha. [28]
At the ruling time of Asoka, the development and preaching of Hinduism in India was stunted due to expanding of Buddhism religion rapidly towards the east. After a while, Brahma religion gain new opportunity when the empire of Gupta took over the ruling dominantly in India.
During this era, the usage of Sanskrit language was revived and indicates Hinduism religion as an official religion. Moreover, during the rising of Gupta empire (320 M- 500 M) shows the development of Hinduism traditions which is to create few flow that focuses towards the Lords inside the community. For example, Vaishnavisme ( focused on Vishnu), Shaivisme ( focused on Siva ) and Shaktisme ( focused on head of Goddess). That’s the reason why the Hindu temple was influenced by God from Siva, Vishnu and Devi family. There was no temples focus on Brahma result to different types of Brahma which rarely spoken by the Hindu followers.[29]
Based on Wendy Doniger books entitle The Hindus, the written of Smriti book was successfully completed and gathered during the Gupta empire and was made as reference for Hindu followers. The books of Purana was made as an important reference of the infrastructure of idols inside the temples. The image of Gods inside the temples was majoritydesigned according to the book of Purana.[30] Therefore, the practice of Hinduism in this era are mostly influenced with the development of Puranic and Gupta empire.
Discussion about the Hinduism name.
The word Hindu or Hinduism was not found in any holy book of Hinduism even the word was been newly introduced.[31] Based on Pundit Jawahar LaI Nehru inside the book, Discovery of India, the word Hindu was firstly used by the Persian which refers to the Indus River. They called it as Hindus.[32]
After that, the word Hindu was used by an author from British in the year of 1830. It refers to the teachings and religion professed by the community overthere. Polemic occurred among the scholars in India towards the name of religion professed by the Hindu follower. They embraced the Veda scriptures. They enjoyed with the name Vedanta which means a person who followed the Veda scripture. There is also other name such as Sanatana Dharma which means the eternal truth (natural law). They are also synonym with Brahma religion while the word Hindu do not agree whole among their scholar. Moreover, the word was expand and become a specific name towards the religion embraced by a group of people who follow the Veda scriptures and culture of India.
Conclusion
The original teaching of Veda and Upanishads is emphasized on the concept of monotheism. The concept of God and Goddess was changed whilst entering the era when smriti is written. After that, it developed and expanded through the introduction of types of worshipping according to the classes of their Gods such as Siva, Vishnu and Dewi. It continued till the era which the Hinduism owns the history and faced the up and down phased in a long duration. It also includes the Modern era which consist of few figures such as Ram Mohan Roy, Sri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi and many more that contribute the innovation of ideas towards this teaching.
Key Note:
__________________________________
[1] Before the existent of Dravidia group, theearliest group are as such Negrito and Ausroloid. Dravidia group is a group that developed the big civilization in India and they ruled the place before the coming of Arya group.
[2]Ibid,pg45
[3] Refer to Ernest Mackay, (1948). Early Indus Civilizations, Luzac & Company LTD, London,hlm52-76
[4] Refer to Esa Khalid & Mohd Azhar Abd Hamid, (2005). Beberapa Aspek Tamadun Melayu, India, China dan Jepun, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor,pg 341/ Refer Professor Gavin Flood, (2009). History of Hindusim - www.bbc.co.uk-religions Hinduism- Discussion about the Gods of Hindu also got controversy which is discovering the Proto Siva idols which worshipped by the Dravidia people. The polemic still discussed among the teologent.
[5] That’s the reason why North of India and South of India have significant differences. They were known as Tamil community in South of India and were known as Hindustan community in North of India. The differences not only the face and genetics but the differences in terms of speech, thinking and beliefs.
[6] Refer to Rasamandala Das, (-). The Illustrated Encylopedia of Hinduism, Lorenz Books, Armadillo, page 20-21 / Refer Sihombing,(1962). India: Sejarah dan kebudayaan, Bandung: SumurBandung,no.12.
[7] Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, pg 3
[8] Refer to Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007). artikel Hinduism. Edited by Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture, RoutledgeCurzon Tylor & Francis Group,London, pg3-6
[9] Mohd Rosmizi Abd Rahman dan rakan-rakan, (2012). Agama-Agama Di Dunia, USIM,NegeriSembilan, pg 37
[10] Refer to Drs. I Ketut Wiana, M. Ag, (2013). Pokok-Pokok Ajaran Hindu, PT Paramita Surabaya, pg 6
[11] Refer to Muhammad Alexander, (2011). Yakjuj & Makjuj 5 Gelombang Pembawa Bencana, PTS, Selangor, pg 311
[12] Interesting discussion by Prof. Uthaya Naidu have a view which the Gods inside Veda was the name of the leaders of Arya Nation when they entered India. One of it is Indra which was known as Lord of Wind. Refer to text Veda which are Rig Veda VIII, 87: 6, Rig Veda IX 73: 5, Rig Veda VI 130: 8, Rig Veda VII 12: 4, it is a text indicates the story of Indra fighting against the black community or known as Dravidia and Koloria during the conquer of India. [13] Refer to Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, pg 185/ Refer Drs. I Ketut Wiana, M. Ag, (2002). Pokok-Pokok Ajaran Hindu, Penerbitan Paramita Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia, pg 6-7/ Refer Abu Su’ud, (1988). Memahami Sejarah Bangsa-Bangsa Asia Selatan, Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Derektorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi, no 46
[14] Lihat Rasamandala Das, (-). The Illustrated Encylopedia of Hinduism, Lorenz Books, Armadillo, pg 23.
[15] It is a need to emphasis that Arya Nation did not embraced Hinduism but they brought a new teaching gained by Indo-Arya, according to Prof, Norman Brown inside the Book, Pakistan and Western Asia. The culture of Arya was closer to Zoroaster Avesta holy scriptures which teach oneness of God. Meanwhile Hinduism is a result of syncretism with the culture of others after long time they stayed till the existent of Hinduism today.
[16] Refer to Soegiri DS, (2008). Arus Filsafat, PT Ultimus, Bandung, Indonesia, hlm 244, It is due to the group of Aryan that wants the community to use the Sanskrit language as their medium communication while in earliest phase they used Sanskrit language as a foreign language which do not used by the Dravidia tribes.
[17] Refer to Arnold Toynbee (2004). Sejarah Umat Manusia, Pustaka Pelajar, Yogyakarta, pg 189-192.
[18] Eventhough the arguments that Kasta or Varna was introduced in Rig Veda books: 90: 11-12 but the meaning does not refer to some part of the community which built one body. The complicated Kast system was covered with religion which started to develop in the era of 8 SM.
[19] Refer Wendy Doniger, (2009). The Hindus: An Alternative History, Penguin Books, USA, pg 214-230. There are few opinions was written in the year 400 SM such as Molloy, Michael (2008). Experiencing the World's Religions. pg 87 dan Brockington, J. (1998). The Sanskrit Epics, Leiden pg 26 and Van Buitenen; The Mahabharata, Jilid. 1; The Book of the Beginning. Introduction.
[20] Refer Ananda K. Coomarasmawy & Sister Nivedita, (2016). Myths Of The Hindus And Buddhists, Dover Publications, New York, pg 4-10.
[21] Furthermore, they faced downturn era in between the duration of Puranic.
[22] Max Muller translated: “In the beginning,’my dear,’ my dear,’there was that only which is (τὸ ὄν), one only, without a second. Others say, in the beginning there was that only which is not (τὸ μὴ ὄν), one only, without a second; and from that which is not, that which is was born.”
[23] Differences occurred among the Indologist regards to the date of Purana firstly written. Based on Wendy Doniger also did research about the age of the Purana scriptures written and they identified it was around 250 M-1000 M. It started with Matsya Purana and Markandey Purana around 250 M and end with Linga Purana around 1000 M.
[24] Avatar was an incarnation or the birth of God in a form of human such as Lord Visnu. Lord Visnu came down to the earth through incarnation and become Sri Rama, Krishna and Buddha.
[25] Refer to I Wayan Maswinara, (2002). Matsya Purana, PT Paramita, Surabaya, pg 88-89.
[26] Ibid pg 89
[27] Siva’s name was not found in the Veda and Upanishads scriptures. It was introduced in the era of Puranic. Their scholars have an opinion about the character of Siva inside the Veda which is Rudra. Refer to Stephen Knapp (2010). Avatars, Gods and Goddesses of Vedic Culture,hlm4.
[28] Refer to Azharudin Mohd Dali, (2004). Tamadun India, Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka, KualaLumpur,hlm93-94
[29] Refer to Professor Gavin Flood, (2009). History of Hindusim - www.bbc.co.uk-religions Hinduism: Safe to say that there wasn’t a Brahma Temple
[30] Refer to Wendy Doniger, (2009). The Hindus: An Alternative History, Penguin Books, USA, pg 370-405
[31] Refer to James Hansting and others (-) Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Jilid 6 pg 699
[32] Inside Zend Avesta scriptures, the usage word of Hapta-Hendu refers to India. Refer to Zend Avesta, Vendidad: Fargard 1. 8
[Perkembangan Agama Di India]
India merupakan tanah tamadun yang pernah gemilang pada suatu ketika dahulu. Sekitar 3000-2000 SM Harappa dan Mohenjo Daro merupakan tamadun hebat yang pernah berdiri di India dan menjadi kajian sejarah sehingga ke hari ini. Penduduk asal India yang menetap di sana adalah dari kalangan bangsa Dravidia. Bangsa ini adalah penduduk asli yang diketemukan mendiami kota Harappa di Punjab dan di sebelah utara kota Karachi sekitar tahun 3000-2000 SM.[1]
Bangsa Dravidia merupakan bangsa yang beragama kepada politheisme, mereka percaya kepada banyak Tuhan. Mereka juga memiliki kepercayaan menyembah dewa-dewa, misalnya dewa kesuburan dan kemakmuran (Dewi Ibu).[2] Menurut Ernest Mackay di dalam bukunya Early Indus Civilizations menyatakan bahawa masyarakat lembah Sungai Indus juga menyembah binatang-binatang seperti buaya dan gajah serta menyembah pohon seperti pohon pipal (beringin).[3] Malah mereka juga melakukan ritual mengorbankan haiwan untuk dipersembahkan kepada dewa-dewi mereka. Selain itu juga mereka sudah ada upacara mandi suci yang ditemui di Mohenjodaro ini kerana di tengah-tengah kota tersebut terdapat sebuah kolam yang dikenali sebagai “Great Bath”. Pemujaan dan ritual tersebut dilakukan sebagai tanda terima kasih mereka kepada dewa disebabkan memberi nikmat yang merupakan keamanan dan kesejahteraan di dalam kehidupan mereka.[4]
Terdapat sebuah teori terkenal yang menceritakan mengenai perubahan struktur sosial di India pada suatu ketika itu. Iaitu teori kemasukkan orang Arya ke tanah India. Dianggarkan sekitar tahun 1800-1000 SM bangsa Arya dari Parsi (Iran) memasuki India. Arya bermaksud bangsa yang mulia. Mereka adalah bangsa berkulit cerah dan memiliki hidung mancung serta mereka adalah bangsa yang mahir dalam berperang. Bangsa Arya melihat bahawa bangsa Dravidia sebagai bangsa yang tidak mahir dalam seni berperang, sehingga bangsa Dravidia dikalahkan oleh bangsa Arya dan menyebabkan terdesaknya bangsa Dravidia sehingga berpindah ke selatan.[5] Hal ini dibuktikan oleh ahli arkeologi ketika melakukan penggalian di Harappa didapati terdapat banyak kerangka manusia yang mati ketika berperang dan itu menanda bahawa terjadinya peperangan antara Arya dan Dravidia pada suatu ketika dahulu. Di akhirnya bangsa Dravidia ditakluk oleh bangsa Arya. Selain itu juga berlaku kerosakan teruk pada kota Harappa hasil dari terjadinya peperangan tersebut.[6]
Masuknya Monotheisme Arya Ke India
Bangsa Arya adalah bangsa yang banyak mencorak struktur keagamaan di India sehingga wujudnya agama Brahma atau Hindu pada hari ini. Ketika bangsa Arya memasuki India, jauh sebelum itu mereka sudah memiliki agama mereka sendiri dan ada sebahagian ilmuan mengatakan ia adalah Arya Dharma.[7] Dharma bermaksud ‘Jalan Hidup’. Oleh itu Arya Dharma bermaksud ‘Jalan Hidup Arya’.[8] Di dalam konsep Arya Dharma mereka mempercayai kepada Tuhan Esa, dengan kata lain ia adalah agama monotheisme.[9]
Ramai sarjana barat mengaitkan Arya Dharma menerima pengaruh dari agama Zoroaster dari Parsi kerana terdapat beberapa persamaan di antara kandungan kitab Veda dengan kitab suci Zoroaster iaitu Gathas seperti kajian Mary Boyce dalam buku Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Manakala ada pula pandangan yang mengatakan Arya Dharma ia pengaruh dari ajaran Abraham atau Ibrahim dari Mesopotamia.
Menurut Prof. Uthaya Naidu di dalam bukunya “Bible of Aryan Invasions: Aryan Invansions & Genocide of Negroes, Semites & Mongols The Bible of Aryan Invasions” menyebut bahawa di antara tahun 1500 SM hingga 800 SM terdapat empat serangan dan kemasukkan bangsa Arya ke atas India, antaranya:
1) Kemasukkan Arya Rigvedik (1500 SM)
2) Kemasukkan Aryan II (1400 SM)
3) Kemasukkan ras Arya Krishnaite (1200 SM)
4) Kemasukkan ras Arya Mahabharata (900-800 SM)
Pada kemasukkan pertama yang dikenali sebagai kemasukkan Arya Rigvedik merupakan gerombolan besar serangan Arya ke India lalu mereka berperang dengan kaum Dravidia yang merupakan kelompok awal yang menyerang tamadun di lembah sungai Indus. Hasil daripada peperangan itu kaum Dravidia kalah dan mereka diusir ke selatan India. Manakala pada abad berikutnya, dikenali zaman kemasukkan Arya kali kedua di India dan mereka dipercayai merupakan ras Indo-Arya yang memiliki tamadun dan peradaban. Kaum Arya menguasai dua kawasan utama di India iaitu di Punjab dan Doab.[10] Selepas daripada kemasukkan Arya ke II ke India maka berlakulah zaman penulisan kitab Veda dengan menggunakan bahasa Sanskrit sebagai bahasa pengantar. Ini kerana kaum Arya ke II mula menyebar fahaman dan agamanya ke India.[11] Agama dan ajaran yang dibawa oleh orang Arya merupakan ajaran monotheisme.
Mereka menyembah Tuhan bernama Brahman. Selain itu mereka juga mempercayai dewa-dewi yang mewakili dunia seperti dewa Pretivi sebagai Dewa Bumi, Surya sebagai Dewa Matahari, Vayu sebagai Dewa Angin, Varuna sebagai Dewa Laut, dan Agni sebagai Dewa Api. Walaupun ada perbahasan sejarah mengenai nama-nama dewa tersebut wujud selepas penulisan Veda akan tetapi asas keyakinan terhadap dewa-dewa tersebut sudah ada dalam kepercayaan mereka.[12]
Bermulanya Zaman Vedik
Setelah bangsa Arya berpindah ke India maka berlakulah percampuran budaya dan agama di antara kedua bangsa besar ini sehingga terwujudnya penulisan kitab Veda sekitar tahun 1400 SM sehingga 1000 SM. Pada zaman itu juga dikenali sebagai zaman Veda (Vedic).[13] Kitab Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, dan Athrava Veda adalah hasil penulisan dari falsafah teologi Arya yang bercampur dengan Dravidia. Setelah itu mereka juga melakukan penulisan kitab Upanishad. Kitab Veda dan Upanishad dikenali sebagai kitab Sruti iaitu kitab suci utama yang diwahyukan.[14]
Pada awal kewujudan agama Veda ini ia dikenali dengan agama Brahma dan mereka semua menguasai bahasa Sanskrit.[15] Pada ketika itu, bahasa Sanskrit hanya dikuasai oleh kaum Arya sahaja. Akan tetapi penguasaan kepada bahasa Sanskrit lama-kelamaan membawa kepada kemunduran dari sudut penguasaan di kalangan masyarakat pada ketika itu. Hasil percampuran dari bahasa Sanskrit dan bahasa asal kaum Dravidia maka muncul bahasa-bahasa baru seperti Kannada, Telugu dan Malayali yang lahir dari bahasa kuno Proto Dravida yang telah bercampur hasil daripada pemaksaan pengantian bahasa Sanskrit oleh kaum Brahmin.[16]
Ini kerana Brahmin atau pendeta agama Brahma ini adalah dari golongan Arya sahaja kerana mereka adalah golongan pembawa ajaran ke India. Oleh itu, mereka berperanan untuk mengajar masyarakat India untuk menggunakan bahasa Sanskrit.[17]
Lahirnya Agama Tidak Berkasta Di India
Pada abad ke 7 SM golongan Brahmin sudah memperkenalkan sistem kasta iaitu pengkelasan di dalam masyarakat.[18] Wujudnya pembahagian golongan agamawan, pemerintah, perusahaan, dan pekerja mengikut aturan agama. Dari hal itu lahirnya tokoh agama Jainisme yang diasaskan oleh Vardhamana atau dikenali Mahavira pada tahun 600 SM. Agamanya tidak memperkenalkan sistem kasta seperti ajaran Brahma. Agama ini asalnya menggunakan bahasa Prakrit. Akan tetapi agama ini tidak berkembang ke negara luar kecuali hanya ada di India.
Beberapa tahun kemudian, lahir pula Siddharta Gautama Buddha pada tahun 563 SM. Beliau juga membawa ajaran yang tidak membawa doktrin kasta. Beliau juga tidak menggunakan bahasa Sanskrit sebagai bahasa pengantar akan tetapi menggunakan bahasa Pali. Beliau memiliki anak murid yang ramai dan menyebabkan agama Buddha tersebar di seluruh dunia. Ketika kedua agama (Jainisme dan Buddhisme) ini giat berkembang, ia merupakan zaman kemunduran bagi agama Vedik atau agama Brahma.
Bermulanya Penulisan Kitab Suci Smriti
Oleh kerana beberapa faktor masa, budaya dan geografi, lama kelamaan bahasa Sanskrit tidak lagi menjadi bahasa teras dalam masyarakat, lalu membawa kepada kelemahan terhadap penguasaan bahasa kitab Veda. Akan tetapi usaha untuk menghidupkan bahasa Sanskrit sentiasa diteruskan. Menurut Wendy Doniger di dalam bukunya The Hindus: An Alternative History mengatakan wujudnya gelombang baru di dalam tradisi kitab suci yang bersifat sejarah dan hikayat iaitu kitab Mahabhrata dan Ramayana. Penulisan ini diperkenalkan sekitar tahun 300 SM-200 M (dan sebahagian ahli sejarah mengatakan ia bermula 400 SM).[19]
Pada zaman ini dikenali sebagai Wiracarita yang mana terkenal dengan epik perang besar yang mengangkat watak utama iaitu Arjuna, Krishna (Mahabhrata) dan juga Sri Rama (Ramayana). Malah di dalam kitab Mahabhrata juga memiliki kisah tuhan-tuhan yang turut menjadi sumbangan kepada perkembangan penulisan kitab-kitab Purana.[20] Penulisan dan perkembangan kitab ini juga beralasan untuk memperkukuhkan penggunaan bahasa Sanskrit di kalangan masyarakat bukan Arya di India.
Di dalam sekitar tempoh tahun 300 SM hingga tahun 500 M ini merupakan suatu lonjakan baru di dalam agama Brahma. Ia dikenali zaman Puranik yang mana berlaku penulisan kitab-kitab lain selain kitab Sruti (Veda dan Upanishad) untuk dijadikan pegangan agama Brahma.[21] Penulisan kitab suci selain Sruti ini ia dikenali sebagai penulisan Smriti. Antara kitab yang ditulis pada zaman ini adalah kitab Sutra Dharma, Shastras, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Bhagavad Gita, Purana, dan lain-lain.
Pada zaman Puranik ini, pengaruh pembinaan patung daripada Yunani atau Hellenisme mula memasuki India dan memberi pengaruh kepada agama Brahma. Selain itu, pengaruh asal politheisme Dravidia juga bermain peranan dalam mencorak penulisan kitab-kitab dan perjalanan kisah Purana. Ini kerana dapat dilihat di dalam perkembangan sejarah bahawa, pada zaman awal agama Brahma tidak dikenali sebagai zaman tuhan yang pelbagai (politheisme). Mereka hanya percaya kepada konsep satu Tuhan. Malah pada tahun 1500 SM sehingga 300 SM (zaman Vedik) tidak terdapat peninggalan ukiran patung suci yang disembah oleh masyarakat pada zaman itu.
Kenapa Zaman Vedik Tidak Memiliki Patung?
Pada zaman Vedik (1500 SM- 500 SM) didapati tidak terdapat patung atau arca suci yang disembah oleh pada masyarakat ketika itu. Ini juga memungkinkan disebabkan terdapat larangan membuat patung Tuhan dan imej Tuhan di dalam kitab Veda dan Upanishad (Sruti). Ini kerana pada zaman ini, kitab Veda dab Upanishad adalah kitab induk yang menjadi rujukan mereka. Larangan itu disebut di dalam Veda:
1) “na tasya pratima asti
“Tak ada rupa buat Tuhan.” (Yajurveda 32:3)
2) “shudhama poapvidham”
“Tuhan tak bertubuh dan suci.” (Yajurveda 40:8)
3) “Andhatama pravishanti ye asambhuti mupaste”
“Mereka memasuki kegelapan bagi yang menyembah elemen alam (Udara, Air, Api Tanah), dan terperosok dalam kegelapan yang besar bagi yang menyembah benda buatan (patung). (Yajurveda 40:9)
Malah pada zaman ini juga sangat menekankan sifat monotheisme Tuhan seperti disebut di dalam Rig Veda dan juga Upanishad:
1) “Ekam sadvipra bahudhaavadanti
“Dia adalah Esa orang bijaksana menebut-Nya banyak nama” ( Rigveda buku 1: rangkap 164 ayat 46)
2) “Ekam eva advityam Brahman”[22]
“Tuhan hanya satu, tidak ada yang kedua” (Chandogya Upanishad bab 6 rangkap 2 ayat 1)
Malah terdapat banyak lagi ayat-ayat sedemikian. Akan tetapi situasi keagamaan ini mula berkembang dengan penambahan kitab suci pada tahun 300 SM, iaitu gelombang penulisan kitab Smriti yang telah memberi kesan kepada agama Brahma. Sehinggakan kisah Tuhan-Tuhan dan raja-raja pesat dihikayatkan dengan versi-versi tersendiri. Hal ini boleh dilihat di dalam kitab Mahabhrata dan juga kitab Purana. Kitab Purana memiliki banyak bahagian dan yang terkenal dikenali sebagai Mahapurana yang terbahagi kepada 18 buah buku:
a) Brahmapurana, b) Padmapurana, c) Visnupurana, d) Bhagavatapurana, e) Naradapurana, f) Markandeypurana, g) Agnipurana, h) Bhavisyapurana, i) Brahmavaiavartapurana, j) Lingapurana, k) Varahapurana, l) Skandapurana, m) Kurmapurana, n) Matsyapurana, o) Garudapurana, dan p) Brahmandapurana.
Kitab ini dihimpun dalam tempoh yang agak panjang. Ia dikenali sebagai tempoh penulisan Puranik.[23] Pada zaman inilah berlakunya percampuran dan penambahan dalam perkara melibatkan soal ketuhanan dalam agama Brahma. Bermula dari zaman ini, fahaman pantheisme dan politheisme mula berkembang di dalam masyarakat penganut agama Brahma. Fahaman yang menganggap semua benda yang memberi manafaat merupakan unsur-unsur Tuhan (pantheisme) dan juga fahaman menyembah arca dan menganggap Tuhan itu lebih daripada satu (politheisme) diselarikan dengan penjelmaan Tuhan melalui tubuh makhluk yang pelbagai (avatar) dan juga henoteisme.[24]
Arahan Baru Membina Patung
Kitab Purana menganjurkan penganut Hindu membuat patung dan berhala, terdapat teks di dalam Matsya Purana menyebut tentangnya di dalam bab Arsitektur (mengikut terjemahan I Wayan Maswinara):
“Patung-patung harus ditempatkan di kuil. Patung dewa Visnu hendaklah dibuat dengan empat tangan atau lapan tangan. Jika dibuat dengan lapan tangan, tangan kanan harus memegang sankha (kulit kerang), gada, sara (anak panah) dan padma (teratai). Tangan kiri harus memegang dhanu (busur), sebuah padma, sebuah sankha, dan sebuah cakra. Jika hanya dibuat empat tangan, gada dan padma ada ditangan kanan, sedangkan cakra dan sankha berada di tangan kiri. Visnu akan digambarkan berdiri di aatas bumi. Garuda raja burung mengelilinginya. Garuda kemudian berada di kaki kanan Visnu. Patung dewi Laksmi harus berada di kiri patung Visnu dan patung Laksmi harus memegang bunga teratai. Patung yang baik terbuat daripada emas, perak, tembaga, perhiasan, batu, kayu, besi atau campuran logam. Ukuran tubuh para dewa tersebut haruslah benar.”[25]
Begitu juga dengan patung dewa yang lain, Purana sudah menggariskan gambaran dan wajah Tuhan mereka sehingga perlu dijadikan sebagai patung. Sebagai contoh, wajah dan struktur Siva sudah digariskan di dalam Purana:
“Patung dewa Siva harus dibuat dengan rambut panjang yang tergerai dan ia harus menggunakan bulan sabit di atas dahinya. Patung tersebut harus menggambarkan Siva saat berumur 16 tahun. Siva harus memakai pakaian yang dibuat dari bulu binatang dan harus berkalungkan ular. Bulu burung merak harus dipakai di salah satu telinganya. Jika tombak, tongkat atau trisula ditunjukkan, senjata tersebut harus berada disebelah kanan. Dan jika tengkorak, ular atau pedang ditunjukkan, benda-benda tersebut harus berada di sebelah kiri. Sedang Siva menaiki seekor sapi, patungnya memiliki dua tangan, akan tetapi, jika patung Siva dibuat dalam keadaan menari, patung tersebut memiliki sepuluh tangan. Dan jika patung tersebut bertujuan menggambarkan Siva menghancurkan Tripura, patung tersebut harus memiliki 16 tangan.”[26]
Kitab Purana secara jelas menceritakan mengenai keperluan mengukir patung dewa-dewa. Ia merupakan suatu perkembangan yang tidak terdapat dalam ajaran asal Veda. Malah mengenai Siva sendiri tidak disebut di dalam kitab awal seperti Veda dan Upanishad.[27] Zaman kebangkitan kedua agama Hindu ini melihat begitu banyak sekali penambahan terhadap doktrin ajaran Veda.
Pada zaman Puranik inilah agama Hindu banyak dicorak oleh pengaruh politheisme. Selain itu juga berlaku perkembangan ibadah kebaktian (puja) kepada imej dewa-dewa di kuil-kuil mereka. Setelah itu, agama Brahma mula malap apabila tiba pada zaman pemerintahan Asoka di India dibawah empayar Maurya. Di mana Raja Asoka mengambil agama Buddha sebagai agama rasmi pemerintahannya pada tahun 269-232 SM. Pada zaman Raja Asoka beliau menekankan penggunaan bahasa Pali bagi penyebaran agama Buddha.[28]
Pada zaman pemerintahan Asoka penyebaran dan perkembangan Hinduisme (atau agama Brahma) di India sedikit terbantut disebabkan berlakunya penyebaran agama Buddha secara pesat oleh Raja Asoka ke Timur. Setelah sekian lama, agama Brahma mendapat nafas baru apabila Empayar Gupta mengambil alih pemerintahan secara dominan di negara India.
Pada zaman ini penggunaan bahasa Sanskrit dihidupkan semula dan itu mengisyaratkan kepada penggunaan agama Hindu sebagai agama rasmi negara. Pada zaman kebangkitan Empayar Gupta (320 M - 500 M) ini juga menyaksikan perkembangan tradisi Hindusime iaitu wujudnya beberapa aliran yang memberi pengkhususan kepada tuhan-tuhan di dalam kelompok komuniti antaranya adalah Vaishnavisme (memberi tumpuan kepada Vishnu), Shaivisme (memberi tumpuan kepada Siva) dan Shaktisme (memberi tumpuan kepada Dewi). Sebab itu pada hari ini kuil-kuil Hindu banyak dipengaruhi oleh Tuhan dari keluarga Siva, Vishnu, dan Devi. Akan tetapi tidak dibangunkan kuil yang memberi tumpuan kepada Brahma. Hasil daripada itu didapati kuil beraliran Brahma agak jarang disebut oleh penganut Hindu.[29]
Menurut Wendy Doniger di dalam bukunya The Hindus, pada zaman Empayar Gupta inilah penulisan kitab Smriti berjaya dilengkapkan dan dihimpun kesemuannya lalu dijadikan rujukan kepada penganut Hindu. Kitab-kitab Purana juga menjadi rujukan penting dalam pembinaan patung di kuil. Wajah-wajah Tuhan di kuil kesemuannya dicorak berdasarkan kitab Purana.[30] Oleh itu, amalan agama Hindu pada hari ini banyak terpengaruh dengan perkembangan Puranik dan juga empayar Gupta.
Perbincangan Mengenai Nama Hinduisme
Perkataan Hindu atau Hinduisme tidak akan dijumpai dalam mana-mana kitab suci agama Hindu malah perkataan ini baru sahaja diperkenalkan.[31] Menurut Pundit Jawahar Lal Nehru dalam bukunya Discovery of India, perkataan Hindu pertama kali digunakan oleh bangsa Parsi merujuk kepada kawasan Sungai Indus dan mereka menamakan sebagai Hindus.[32]
Setelah itu, perkataan Hindu mula digunakan oleh seorang penulis dari British pada tahun 1830 merujuk kepada ajaran dan agama yang dianuti oleh masyarakat di sana. Berlaku polemik dikalangan ilmuan di India terhadap nama kepada ajaran yang dianuti oleh penganut Hindu yang menganut kepada kitab Veda. Mereka lebih gemari dengan nama Vedanta yang bermaksud orang yang mengikuti kitab Veda. Ada juga yang menamakan sebagai Sanatana Dharma yang bermaksud Kebenaran Abadi (Natural Law). Mereka juga sinonim dengan nama agama Brahma. Manakala perkataan Hindu itu tidak disepakati oleh ilmuan mereka. Akan tetapi perkataan ini mula meluas dan sudah menjadi nama khusus kepada agama yang dianuti oleh kelompok yang mengikuti kitab Veda dan kebudayaan India.
Kesimpulan
Asal ajaran Veda dan Upanishad adalah menekankan konsep monotheisme. Konsep ketuhanan dan dewa dewi mula berubah apabila memasuki pada zaman penulisan kitab Smriti. Setelah itu dikembangkan lagi dengan kewujudan aliran-aliran penyembahan mengikut kelas-kelas dewa utama mereka seperti Siva, Vishnu dan Dewi. Sehinggalah ke zaman ini, agama Hindu memiliki sejarah dan fasa turun naik yang begitu panjang. Termasuklah pada zaman moden ini terdapat beberapa tokoh besar mereka seperti Ram Mohan Roy, Sri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi dan ramai lagi yang turut menyumbang inovasi dan idea ke dalam ajaran ini.
Nota Kaki:
_______________________________
[1] Sebelum adanya golongan Dravidia sudah ada golongan awal iaitu Negrito dan Ausroloid, cuma golongan Dravidia merupakan golongan yang membangunkan tamadun yang besar di India dan mereka menguasai sebelum kedatangan kaum Arya.
[2] Lihat Ernest Mackay, (1948). Early Indus Civilizations, Luzac & Company LTD, London, hlm 45
[3] Lihat ibid, hlm 52-76
[4] Lihat Esa Khalid & Mohd Azhar Abd Hamid, (2005). Beberapa Aspek Tamadun Melayu, India, China dan Jepun, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, hlm 341/ Lihat Professor Gavin Flood, (2009). History of Hindusim - www.bbc.co.uk-religions Hinduism- perbahasan mengenai dewa-dewa Hindu juga terdapat kontroversi yang mengakar terutama mengenai penemuan patung Proto Siva yang disembah oleh masyarakat Dravidia, polemik masih lagi dalam perbahasan dikalangan ahli teologi.
[5] Sebab itu antara ras masyarakat India Utara dan India Selatan memiliki perbezaan yang ketara, di Selatan mereka dikenali sebagai masyarakat Tamil pada hari ini dan Utara dikenali sebagai masyarakat Hindustan. Perbezaan mereka juga tidak sekadar wajah dan genetik sahaja tetapi memiliki perbezaan dari segi pertuturan, pemikiran dan kepercayaan.
[6] Lihat Rasamandala Das, (-). The Illustrated Encylopedia of Hinduism, Lorenz Books, Armadillo, hlm 20-21 / Lihat Sihombing,(1962). India: Sejarah dan kebudayaan, Bandung: Sumur Bandung, hal. 12.
[7] Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, hlm 3
[8] Lihat Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007). artikel Hinduism. Diedit oleh Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture, RoutledgeCurzon Tylor & Francis Group, London, hlm 3-6
[9] Mohd Rosmizi Abd Rahman dan rakan-rakan, (2012). Agama-Agama Di Dunia, USIM,Negeri Sembilan, hlm 37
[10] Lihat Drs. I Ketut Wiana, M. Ag, (2013). Pokok-Pokok Ajaran Hindu, PT Paramita Surabaya, hlm 6
[11] Lihat Muhammad Alexander, (2011). Yakjuj & Makjuj 5 Gelombang Pembawa Bencana, PTS, Selangor, hlm 311
[12] Satu perbincangan menarik oleh Prof. Uthaya Naidu berpandangan bahawa dewa-dewa di dalam Veda itu merupakan nama-nama tokoh pemimpin bangsa Arya ketika mereka memasuki India. Antaranya adalah Indra yang dianggap sebagai dewa angin. Melihat kepada teks Veda antaranya Rig Veda VIII, 87: 6, Rig Veda IX 73: 5, Rig Veda VI 130: 8, Rig Veda VII 12: 4, merupakan teks isyarat menceritakan perjuangan Indra menentang golongan kulit hitam atau dikenali sebagai Dravidia dan Koloria saat menakluk India.
[13] Lihat Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, hlm 185/ Lihat Drs. I Ketut Wiana, M. Ag, (2002). Pokok-Pokok Ajaran Hindu, Penerbitan Paramita Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia, hlm 6-7/ Lihat Abu Su’ud, (1988). Memahami Sejarah Bangsa-Bangsa Asia Selatan, Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Derektorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi, hal 46
[14] Lihat Rasamandala Das, (-). The Illustrated Encylopedia of Hinduism, Lorenz Books, Armadillo, hlm 23.
[15] Perlu ditegaskan bahawa bangsa Arya tidak sesekali menganut agama Hindu, mereka hanya membawa sebuah ajaran yang diperolehi di Indo-Arya, menurut Prof. Norman Brown dalam buku Pakistan and Western Asia kebudayaan Arya lebih dekat dengan apa yang ada dalam Avesta kitab suci Zoroaster juga merupakan ajaran tauhid. Manakala agama Hindu adalah hasil sinkretisme dengan kebudayaan lain setelah sekian lama bertapak di India sehingga mewujudkan agama Hindu pada hari ini.
[16] Lihat Soegiri DS, (2008). Arus Filsafat, PT Ultimus, Bandung, Indonesia, hlm 244, ini kerana golongan Arya ingin masyarakat menggunakan bahasa Sanskrit sebagai pengantar sedangkan pada awal kemasukkan mereka, bahasa Sanskrit ini merupakan bahasa asing yang tidak pernah digunakan oleh bangsa Dravidia.
[17] Lihat Arnold Toynbee (2004). Sejarah Umat Manusia, Pustaka Pelajar, Yogyakarta, hlm 189-192.
[18] Walaupun dihujahkan bahawa Kasta atau Varna itu ada diperkenalkan di dalam Rig Veda buku 10: 90: 11-12 akan tetapi pemaknaannya itu bukan tertuju kepada pembahagian kelas masyarakat mengikut agama tetapi ia adalah nilai sinergi dari kalangan kesemua kelas masyarakat membentuk satu badan. Sistem kasta yang rigid dipalit dengan agama mula dikembangkan pada abad ke 8 SM.
[19] Lihat Wendy Doniger, (2009). The Hindus: An Alternative History, Penguin Books, USA, hlm 214-230. Ada pandangan mengatakan ia ditulis pada tahun 400 SM seperti Molloy, Michael (2008). Experiencing the World's Religions. hlm 87 dan Brockington, J. (1998). The Sanskrit Epics, Leiden hlm 26 serta Van Buitenen; The Mahabharata, Jilid. 1; The Book of the Beginning. Introduction.
[20] Lihat Ananda K. Coomarasmawy & Sister Nivedita, (2016). Myths Of The Hindus And Buddhists, Dover Publications, New York, hlm 4-10.
[21] Disamping itu mereka juga menerima zaman kemuduran dicelah-celah tempoh Puranik.
[22] Manakala Max Muller menterjemahkan: “In the beginning,' my dear, 'there was that only which is (τὸ ὄν), one only, without a second. Others say, in the beginning there was that only which is not (τὸ μὴ ὄν), one only, without a second; and from that which is not, that which is was born.”
[23] Menjadi perbezaan di kalangan Indologists mengenai tarikh permulaan penulisan Purana. Menurut Wendy Doniger yang turut mengkaji mengenai usia penulisan kitab Purana. Menurut beliau, Purana ditulis sekitar tahun 250 M-1000 M. Berawal dengan Matsya Purana dan Markandey Purana sekitar 250 M dan diakhir dengan Linga Purana sekitar 1000 M.
[24] Avatar merupakan reakarnasi atau kelahiran Tuhan dalam bentuk manusia seperti Tuhan Visnu turun ke dunia lalu menjelma menjadi Sri Rama, Krishna, dan Buddha.
[25] Lihat I Wayan Maswinara, (2002). Matsya Purana, PT Paramita, Surabaya, hlm 88-89.
[26] Ibid hlm 89
[27] Nama Siva tidak terdapat di dalam Veda dan Upanishad. Ia baru dinamakan pada zaman Puranik. Ilmuan mereka berpendapat karekter Siva di dalam Veda adalah Rudra. Lihat Stephen Knapp (2010). Avatars, Gods and Goddesses of Vedic Culture, hlm 4.
[28] Lihat Azharudin Mohd Dali, (2004). Tamadun India, Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, hlm 93-94
[29] Lihat Professor Gavin Flood, (2009). History of Hindusim - www.bbc.co.uk-religionshinduism : Malah boleh dikatakan tidak ada kuil Brahma
[30] Lihat Wendy Doniger, (2009). The Hindus: An Alternative History, Penguin Books, USA, hlm 370-405
[31] Lihat James Hansting dan rakan-rakan (-) Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Jilid 6 hlm 699
[32] Di dalam kitab Zend Avesta menggunakan perkataan Hapta-Hendu merujuk kepada India. Lihat Zend Avesta, Vendidad: Fargard 1. 8
R&D TEAM MRM
HELLO EVERYONE! :) ( MORE INFO BELOW!)
I'm back for another video! Here I'll be sharing with you guys my best of 2013 which are not makeup or beauty related. I hope you enjoy it!
From next week onwards, I will be back to posting one video per week and that will be every Friday, as usual :) I'll be starting my last trimester (my school goes by trimester) of school this week and the modules I'll be taking are those that are time consuming. I will try my best to upload once a week. I hope you guys understand if I am unable to upload regularly :)
Thank you all for subscribing, for commenting, for leaving suggestions and recommendations. I appreciate them all :)
Now, to end this lengthy introduction in the description box, I'll list what I mentioned in this video below!
Skincare
- First Aid Beauty Ultra Repair Face Moisturizer
- Biore Eye and Lip Makeup Remover
- LUSH Grease Lightning
Haircare
- Macadamia Deep Repair Hair Mask http://www.beautybay.com/haircare/macadamianaturaloil/g/deeprepairmasque/
Fashion
- Green Parka from Cotton On
- Timberland Boat Shoes
Music
- Audio Technica ATH-AD700 Headphones
- Koss Porta Pro Headphones
- FiiO headphone amplifier
This is where my boyfriend bought the headphones and headphone amplifier https://www.facebook.com/JabenSG?ref=ts&fref=ts
They have THE BEST DEALS EVER and have great customer service too! :) I myself have grown to enjoy going over there to test out headphones or earphones just for fun hehe.
TV Show
- The Walking Dead
Movie (s)
- The Hobbit: Desolation of Smaug
- Thor: The Dark World
Book
- Will Grayson, Will Grayson by David Levithan and John Green
- Kindle Basic
I upload new videos every Friday :)
Click here to watch my previous video! :
Thank you for watching! :)
My Jakarta Vlogs!
Day 1 : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0YgyRBqB4Dc
Day 2 : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6egJFwpjs5g
Day 3 : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HKW8cLE8zW4
Day 4 : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-WyZLg4OIC0
Day 5 : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wncORJQe0E
My Best Beauty Products of 2013 : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qmj6s0b5RyY
My December 2013 Favourites : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3q7Xzul7cXs
Makeup I'm wearing in this video:
Foundation: Revlon Colorstay Foundation | Warm Golden
Blush: Wet N Wild | Pearlescent Pink
Eyeshadow: Naked 2 Palette
Lipstick: Stila Liquid Lipstick | Patina
FIND ME HERE :)
BLOG: http://rustyshoes.wordpress.com
INSTAGRAM: http://instagram.com/tiarasdusqie
DISCLAIMER:
I am an affiliate with Luxola.com. You can choose to click my affiliate links if you want. BUT, if you don't want to, it's ok! You can just go to their website at http://luxola.com to make your purchases if you are interested, without having to click my affiliate links :) So, don't worry! The choice is yours! :)
Thank you!
Tiara xx
