【還原「物業帶動鐵路」的歷史時空】 #永續港鐵霸權 #7月專研
港鐵霸權一大核心就是長期壟斷「鐵路上蓋物業發展權」,今時今日香港土地問題走到如斯局面,與經常被吹噓為「國際成功模式」的「鐵路加物業」(Rail + Property) 不無關係,但服務大眾的鐵路公司搖身一變成為追求利潤的發展商,絕對不是一夕間發生的合理事情。「鐵路上蓋物業」的原意又與今日有沒有變化? 是次研究專題將會透過回顧過上千頁有關香港地下鐵發展的英國解密檔案,還原70年代「物業帶動鐵路」發展模式的源起及原意,將有助進一步理解現時逐漸扭曲的港鐵發展形態。
▌構思初現:初期鐵路物業的背景與概念
「以地養鐵」更早可以在日本找到相類似發展模式 (Murakami, J., & Gregory, K. I.,2012),然而最早「引進」香港的來源暫不可考。但從現有官方內部檔案中,可找到早於1970年交通諮詢委員會 (Transport Advisory Committee)提交的一份《集體運輸計劃總報告書》,報告中建議除了計劃興建已設計的4條鐵路路線,並分9期(nine distinct stages) 完成「理想」鐵路系統(preferred system)外,已有提及「發展上蓋物業」的構思。在報告提及鐵路系統的長期發展影響:
”Wherever subway systems have been built experience shows that property and land increase in value. This opens up the strong possibility that a part of the cost of providing station concourses could be met through arrangements which permit the private development of station superstructures and surrounds.”
當年報告所述,由於預視到鐵路系統的帶動下,當地物業及地價將會升值。因而報告提到有很大可能可以容許私人發展 (private development) 上蓋物業去補貼鐵路站的建設成本。值得注意的是,報告除了提出上蓋 (station superstructures)發展外,首次提到發展上蓋周邊 (surrounds) 的發展概念。可見,現時港鐵圈地/上蓋物業發展一早出現在早期鐵路系統構思之中。
70年代還有差點讓鐵路系統觸礁的財政艱難,更清晰定位鐵路中的「物業收益」有何功能。參考早期關於興建鐵路系統的英國解密檔案顯示,早於1972年,香港政府成立集體運輸臨時管理局(Mass Transit Railway Provisional Authority),打算先行興建較全面、工程單一批予日資財團(Japanese consortium)的早期系統(initial system),但後來石油危機爆發,日本經濟陷入危機,財團先是提出可否修訂興建成本價格上限由50億為60億,遭到管理局拒絕後則宣佈退出鐵路興建,檔案中可看到港英政府曾一度為此而與日資財團就賠償爭執,甚至有香港主要大班 (怡和除外) 都因財政理由反對繼續推展興建鐵路計劃。
當年港英內部評估1980年代交通系統會超負荷,即使鐵路系統已被日資延遲一年(have effectively delayed the MTR project for 12 months),連帶物料通賬的財政問題,但卻認為必須「頂硬上」,調整鐵路系統的財政預算、規模以及未來發展方向,於是臨急推出後來實現的修正早期系統 (Modified Initial System)。在1975年一份關於修正早期系統行政局內部文件,港英將會排除必要鐵路系統以外的多餘支出 (eliminate all expenditures not strictly necessary for resultant simpler system),不僅使整個鐵路規模「大縮水」,同時更建議以溢價債卷(Premium bond)作為融資措施,以及發展沿線上蓋物業(property development on lines)抵消(offset)財赤,皆為確保(safeguard)鐵路在任何情況下的財政可負擔性(the financial viability in any event),讓減少後規模的總興建成本能夠保持於49億的水平。可見,當初「鐵路加物業」發展的概念是在財政大緊縮的特定歷史脈絡生成,目的為防止鐵路興建所帶來財政不穩定情況的其中一法。
▌立業辟地:港鐵上蓋四小龍
直到1975年,為了確保鐵路系統的財政可負擔性以及應急儲備,集體運輸臨時管理局向政府申請批出四個鐵路上蓋物業的綜合發展權(comprehensive development)。而當時行政局內部討論中,一份十分詳細記錄有關批予集體運輸臨時管理局四個上蓋發展權的行政局文件顯示,最早期物業上蓋發展的具體情況:
—九龍灣車廠上蓋物業(現時德福花園):
當時除了作為首個利用鐵路車廠上蓋作物業發展的項目,而且亦成為物業上蓋住宅發展的先例,佔地165,800平方呎,打算興建大型屋苑,滿足18,000個人口的住宅需求。
—亞皆老站(即現今旺角站)上蓋物業(現時旺角中心第一期):
首個非鐵路站上蓋作物業發展,只是相鄰於(adjacent to) 鐵路站,為首個利用鐵路通風樓(ventilation shaft)的物業發展。
—金鐘站上蓋物業(現時海富中心):
佔地60,000平方呎的海富中心,當時金鐘站上蓋物業批地條例原來有列明非工業用途,包括興建酒店(non-industrial purposes which may include a hotel)。
—畢打/遮打站(即現今中環站)上蓋物業(Pedder/Chater)(現時環球中心):
當時批中環商業靚地予鐵路公司的理據明顯為商業利益最大化(maximum exploitation of the commercial possibilities),一來可以善用土地資源(物業建於鐵路站上蓋),二來物業及鐵路站同時興建,可以減少工程興建時發展阻礙(development disturbance)。
其後地鐵公司分別與恆隆、合和、長實多間發展商共合發展上述四個上蓋物業,作為「鐵路加物業」發展模式的雛型,當時內部估計以上物業收入將會佔地鐵公司總收益的20%。當年批出九龍灣車廠上蓋物業上公頃的市區發展土地,整體政府部門都相當歡迎,認為可以平衡當區公屋主導的房屋格局,與及能夠為該區提供額外設施的機會,甚至具體要求屋苑內有至少10戶1車位的發展條件 (XCC(75)52)。此四幅最早批出的上蓋物業發展,從通風樓到車廠、由單一大廈到綜合發展,已是奠定了日後鐵路物業發展的主要選址方式與發展類型。
▌誰主上蓋物業?
這份行政局文件亦載有早期鐵路用地發展權的重要批地原則(principles to be adopted in respect to land grant to Mass Transmit Railway Corporation),是還原物業上蓋發展歷史一份重要參照。文件清楚列出,上蓋物業不一定是地鐵公司「囊中物」,鐵路物業發展權是否批出,或批給誰,完全是政府「話事」 (the grant of comprehensive development rights on land affected by railway installations will be discretionary)。
文件亦同時指出,程序上地鐵公司需要先向政府申請(formally apply)批地,政府可以基於實際考慮 (practical consideration) 決定如何運用這些鐵路上蓋用地的發展潛力 (for government to decide on how to dispose of any development potential remaining in the land over and above its Mass Transit usage) 。換言之,港鐵的上蓋發展絕對可以由政府主導及決定,包括根據現時的實際考慮(公營房屋供應長期落後及不足)用作興建公屋,不一定用於與發展商合作興建私樓供港鐵公司利潤最大化。
▌物業收益應急而起
70年代尾,鐵路系統打算擴建至荃灣區。翻查1978年有關鐵路擴建荃灣(Mass Transit Railway extension to Tsuen Wan)的行政局文件顯示,當時除了提及車廠上蓋物業發展的選址爭議外,亦有提及港英對發展上蓋物業的財政原則。物業發展的收入原本並不用作補貼鐵路成本 (revenue from property development was not originally envisaged as being used as a means of financing the capital cost of the railway itself),而是作為應急儲備及改善現金流(contingency reserve and to improve its cash flow)。而且更補充荃灣車廠上蓋物業發展的剩餘收入,可以用作應對以下4個應急情況:
—抵消「超支」建築成本(offset any excess construction costs)
—抵消收入財赤(offset any revenue deficiencies)
—加速還債(accelerate loan repayments)
—提早鐵路公司對港英政府的投資分股息的日子(bring forward the date when the Corporation begins to pay the Government as share holder on behalf of the public dividends on its investment)
可見,港英多次強調,鐵路上蓋物業收入為確保財政可負擔性(viability)及應急(contingency),而非像現時政府愈來愈恆常化送地予港鐵興建私樓賺錢。
引述法國城市學者Aveline-Dubach整理地鐵公司至其後港鐵自1980至2016年收入可見,明顯看見90年代末東涌綫及其後的將軍澳線所帶動的物業發展收入比例愈來愈重,已經超越鐵路票務收入,現時每年物業收益足足佔港鐵總收入四成。可見,透過重現當初的批地原意,更能突顯漸走向扭曲的港鐵發展形態,形成尾大不掉之勢。
▌賣樓補車費:明言物業發展利潤補貼車費
港鐵不應用上蓋物業賺盡的討論,亦見於地下鐵路公司條例的立法階段的重要討論。一份1975年討論地下鐵路公司草案(Mass Transit Railway Corporation Bill)的行政局文件,提及鐵路公司需要按照審慎商業原則 (prudent commercial principles)。鐵路作為公共交通工具,不應最大化其投資回報 (maximize its return on investment),只應賺取足夠(enough)收入作營運開支。
文件亦可見當年政府就發展上蓋物業項目的收益,會清晰公開回應指物業發展可為鐵路帶來的額外利潤,以維持一個「保守的車費政策」 (assist the railway by providing extra revenue to maintain a conservative fares policy)。比起今天已經與物業收益「脫勾」的「可加可減」車費制度,當日港英政府明顯認為物業收益有助更平宜的車費定價。
在40多年前的歷史時空,當初「鐵路加物業」發展模式跟現時已經不可同日而語,發展上蓋物業不論就其發展型態、財政狀況、規劃模式、補貼原意,明顯有其特定的歷史脈絡及原意。是次研究專題透過還原早期興建地鐵的歷史討論,帶出現時不斷被政府吹奏作為「國際級典範」—港鐵發展模式,並不是一套千秋萬世的發展方程式。
參考資料
1971 FCO 40 358 Construction of an underground railway system in Hong Kong
1975 FCO 40 658 Construction of an underground railway system in Hong Kong
1975 FCO 40 659 Construction of an underground railway system in Hong Kong
1975 FCO 40 660 Construction of an underground railway system in Hong Kong
1978 FCO 40 974 Construction of an underground railway system in Hong Kong
Aveline-Dubach, N., & Blandeau, G. (2019). The political economy of transit value capture: The changing business model of the MTRC in Hong Kong. Urban Studies, 56(16), 3415-3431.
Murakami, J., & Gregory, K. I. (2012). Transit value capture: New town codevelopment models and land market updates in Tokyo and Hong Kong. Value capture and land policies, 285-320.
研究自主 月捐撐起最新專研系列:https://liber-research.com/support-us/
FPS ID:5390547
HSBC PayMe 捐款支持:https://bit.ly/32aoOMn
戶口號碼:匯豐銀行 640-198305-001 (LIBER RESEARCH COMMUNITY (HK) COMPANY LIMITED)
義工招募:https://bit.ly/2SbbyT3
同時也有12部Youtube影片,追蹤數超過23萬的網紅ラッシー / LASSIE,也在其Youtube影片中提到,提供:Koch Media 【番組内容】 Koch Mediaにより最新タイトルの情報とゲーム実況下記のスケージュールでお届け! ぜひ最後まで見てください! 15:45-16:15 Protocorgi 16:15-17:00 Relicta 17:00-18:00 Windbound 18:00-...
「tokyo property」的推薦目錄:
tokyo property 在 李怡 Facebook 的最讚貼文
I sincerely hope I am wrong | Lee Yee
I know very little about American issues. In the past, I even thought that no matter which party wins the presidential election, there would be no significant difference under the Constitution and the existing system. However, it is different this time. This US presidential election not only involves the interests of the Americans but also concerns the future political situation of the world, especially for China and Hong Kong.
The state of society tearing as a result of this presidential election is far beyond any from the past, almost to the point of a civil war. As far as the domestic situation in the US is concerned, it is not a dispute between supporting Trump or supporting Biden, but a fight between support for Trump and opposition to Trump. The topics of discussion are 1) epidemic prevention and control measures, 2) violence and disorder due to the Black Lives Matter protests, and 3) economy. Arguments from both standpoints are too numerous to detail and many are reasonable with solid judgment. It is very difficult to explain clearly in this short article. I will only discuss the history and current situation of Sino-US relations.
The most important timeline in the history of the modern relations between China and the US is after WWII during the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang (KMT)-led government of the Republic of China and the Communist Party of China (CPC). At that time, the 33rd president of the US and leader of the Democratic Party, Harry S. Truman pursued a policy of appeasement to the CPC and actively advocated negotiations between the KMT and the CPC. During the Chinese Civil War, it was apparent that he was pro-communist and made the communist military stronger. The KMT was defeated for internal reasons but the US inclination was key. After the KMT government retreated to Taiwan, in January 1950, President Truman issued a statement that the US would not intervene with the situation in China and declared that the island groups of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and some minor islands were not within the scope of the US military. The US Democratic Party allowed mainland China to fall into the hands of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Later, Chiang Kai-shek commissioned General Ho Shai-lai to Tokyo to meet with Douglas MacArthur, the American general who administered postwar Japan during the Allied occupation and oversaw the occupation, rebuilding and democratization of Japan. The visit aimed to win the support of General MacArthur and was ultimately able to save Taiwan.
Another important page in the history of the Sino-US relations was the diplomatic breakthrough of Republican US President Richard Nixon in 1971. A military conflict broke out in the previous year at the border of China and the then Soviet Union. The Soviet Union intended to deploy nuclear weapons to perform a so-called “surgical removal operation” on China’s nuclear base. However, it was halted when it probed the US for reactions. The US stated that if the Soviet Union employed nuclear weapons, it would undoubtedly challenge the US nuclear balance policy. After that, when the US collaborated with China to strategically deal with the superpower Soviet Union, the US did not abandon Taiwan. Not until 1979 when Jimmy Carter, the 39th president of the US and a democrat, established diplomatic relations with the CCP that the US severed ties with Taiwan. The incident triggered a global trend to set up diplomatic relations with the CCP, which enabled the CCP to steady a firm holding in the international community.
The third important aspect in the history of the Sino-US relations was in 2000, under Bill Clinton’s administration, China was given entry into the WTO (World Trade Organization) and granted a most favored nation (MFN) status. Since then, it developed its foothold as an international manufacturer in the global market. Furthermore, its economy took off through intellectual property theft, failure to commit to the promise of its 2001 accession to the WTO and market dominance by means of authoritarian capitalism. As China’s economic development fully penetrates into the Western world, on the one hand, it takes advantage of the multinational companies invested in China to control the capital markets of the US and the West. On the other hand, it invests heavily in its grand propaganda to control overseas Chinese media and even Western mainstream media.
Every election candidate receives donations from multinational companies. Not to mention 90% of the mainstream media in the US are owned or operated by these Democratic Party’s donors. Therefore, they turn a blind eye to the elephant in the room and injudiciously embrace the CCP regime that has infiltrated the American society and continuously infringed on human rights at home. In addition to the interest considerations, the media of course also has the leftist ideology permeated in Western academia and journalism. I will elaborate on this topic at another time.
Finally, there is Trump who is not swayed by the donors of multinational corporations because he himself does not lack money nor is he afraid to offend most of the leftist media. He sometimes speaks without thinking but he never seeks the so-called “political correctness,” and basically does what he says he would. People who stand on the moral high ground with the spirit of great love would shake their heads upon his words and actions. Regardless, only a person like Trump can start to contain the power that infiltrated the US and the Western world, and support the democracy of Taiwan and Hong Kong’s campaign for autonomy.
Currently, anti-China is the general social conscience in the US. Biden’s China policy seems to align with that of Trump’s. Biden even defined the CCP’s handling of Xinjiang as an “ethnic genocide.” However, is there really no difference between the two parties? Recall that when Clinton was running for the presidency, he said that he opposed the Republican government’s annual review of the US MFN status for China. He believed it should not be granted but after he took office, he made China’s MFN status permanent and sent China to the WTO.
As the Democratic Party controls Wall Street and mainstream media, I am not optimistic about Trump in this election. Even so, I really hope from my brain to my heart that I am wrong.
tokyo property 在 Serena C Facebook 的最佳貼文
O P P O R T U N I T Y
.
.
.
Wrote this yesterday when i found an article about how Alibaba handled SARS when they were juuuust starting out of Jack Ma's apartment (link for article in bio)
.
.
.
"Since end Jan, multiple jobs have been either "postponed" indefinitely or cancelled for me. great start to the year I thought -.-
.
Trying to stay positive
.
Like the headline below says "Every crisis presents opportunities".
.
Perhaps this current crisis could further streamline the way we do things, and present opportunities we were not able to see before this?
.
In terms of property investment, KL was the world's cheapest city in 2019 to buy a luxury home according to a survey of 28 cities across the globe (Savills Prime Index: World Cities research report).
.
The same can be observed with rental values with KL ranked as one of the 3 lower-valued cities - where a prime house ( 4000 sq ft)cost less than USD 1000/week. The other 2 cities - Cape Town and Hangzhou China.
.
HK remained top of the rental league (USD7060/week) followed by Tokyo (USD 6000/ week)...
.
What does this mean?
"Every crisis...
#thinkingoutloud
tokyo property 在 ラッシー / LASSIE Youtube 的精選貼文
提供:Koch Media
【番組内容】
Koch Mediaにより最新タイトルの情報とゲーム実況下記のスケージュールでお届け!
ぜひ最後まで見てください!
15:45-16:15 Protocorgi
16:15-17:00 Relicta
17:00-18:00 Windbound
18:00-19:00 休憩
19:00-20:15 Dirt5
20:15-21:30 Maneater
▼Koch Media HP
https://www.kochmedia.com/en/games/
▼Koch Media Japan twitter
https://twitter.com/KochMediaJP
=======================
【#Maneater】ジャンル/シングルプレイヤー用のオープンワールドアクションRPG(ShaRkPG)・対応機種/PC、PS4、XboxOne、Nintendo Switch ・対応人数/1人 ・発売日/ 2020年末
© 2019 Tripwire Interactive- published by Koch Media, Austria. Deep Silver® is a registered trademark of Koch Media in the USA and elsewhere. Maneater © 2019 Tripwire Interactive. Maneater® is a registered trademark of Tripwire Interactive in the USA and other countries. All other trademarks, logos and copyrights are property of their respective owners. All rights reserved. Unreal®, Unreal Engine™, the circle-U logo and the Powered by Unreal Engine™ logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of Epic Games, Inc. in the USA and elsewhere.
=======================
【#Dirt5】ジャンル/レーシング・対応機種/Xbox Series X、Xbox One、PlayStation® 5、PlayStation® 4、Windows PC (Steam) 、Google Stadia・対応人数/1人、オンライン対応 ・発売日/ 2020
Developed and published by Codemasters. Disc version distributed 2020 by Koch Media GmbH, Gewerbegebiet 1, 6604 Höfen, Austria.
© 2020 The Codemasters Software Company Limited (“Codemasters”). All rights reserved. “Codemasters”®, the Codemasters logo and “DiRT”® are registered trademarks owned by Codemasters. “DIRT 5"™ and “RaceNet”™ are trademarks of Codemasters. All rights reserved. All other copyrights or trademarks are the property of their respective owners and are being used under license. Developed by Codemasters.
=======================
【#Windbound】ジャンル/アクションアドベンチャー・対応機種/PC、PS4、XboxOne、Nintendo Switch・対応人数/1人・発売日/ 2020年8月28日
PS Store: https://store.playstation.com/ja-jp/product/JP0108-CUSA20459_00-9154012699227388
Nintendo Store: https://ec.nintendo.com/JP/ja/titles/70010000033369
©2020 and published by Koch Media GmbH, Austria. Deep Silver is a division of Koch Media. Deep Silver, Windbound™ and their respective logos are trademarks of Koch Media GmbH. Developed by 5 Lives Studios. 5 Lives Studios and their respective logo are registered trademarks of 5 Lives Studios Pty Limited . All other trademarks, logos and copyrights are property of their respective owners. All rights reserved.
=======================
【#Relicta】 ジャンル/パズル・対応機種/PC、PS4、XboxOne・対応人数/1人・発売日/ 2020年8月4日
PS Store: https://store.playstation.com/ja-jp/product/EP3617-CUSA17918_00-ERELICTAMAINRV00
© Mighty Polygon, S.L. 2020. Developed by Mighty Polygon. Published by Koch Media GmbH. Ravenscourt is a division of Koch Media GmbH, Austria. Ravenscourt and its respective logos are trademarks of Koch Media GmbH. All rights reserved.
=======================
【#Protocorgi】 ジャンル/横スクロールシューティングアクション・対応機種/PC、Switch・対応人数/1人・発売日/ 未定
ProtoCorgi :著作権: 2020 Kemono Games SPA. All rights reserved. ProtoCorgi :登録商標: is a trademark of Kemono Games SPA. Published 2020 by Koch Media GmbH. Ravenscourt is a division of Koch Media GmbH, Gewerbegiebet 1, 6604, Höfen, Austria.
twitter.comtwitter.com
KochMediaJP (@KochMediaJP) | Twitter
The latest Tweets from KochMediaJP (@KochMediaJP). Koch Media Japan公式アカウントです。Koch MediaとDeep Silverの新着ゲームニュースやゲーム画像、トレーラーなどの最新情報を日本の皆様にお届けします。 Tokyo Game Show 2020 / Online :日の丸: 公式出展社番組情報:https://t.co/Xemid9xc0M
PlayStation™StorePlayStation™Store
Windbound (19 kB)
https://store.playstation.com/store/api/chihiro/00_09_000/container/JP/ja/999/JP0108-CUSA20459_00-WINDBOUNDGAMEJP0/1599750437000/image?w=240&h=240&bg_color=000000&opacity=100&_version=00_09_000
任天堂ホームページ任天堂ホームページ
Nintendo Switch|ダウンロード購入|ウインドバウンド
嵐に立ち向かおう (293 kB)
https://img-eshop.cdn.nintendo.net/i/a27013d57016ed70926fe81bf861edb623f4436e54dcffaa2fabd67bdeac139d.jpg
PlayStation™StorePlayStation™Store
レリクタ (25 kB)
tokyo property 在 もふもふ不動産 Youtube 的最讚貼文
English Subtitles Movie List
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list...
Crude oil futures trading became the first negative history.
May contract for WTI crude futures is negative. . It explains in detail how it affects the economy.
◆ Recommended playlist
(Playlist) Basics of stock investment-easy for beginners
: // https: //www.youtube.com/playlist? List = PLFtR1Tmakwn9MuQtXw_lqoLpKaf-R4KxY
(Playlist) Introduction to real estate investment course
Https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list...
(Playlist) [Course] Money class
Https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list...
Roadmap for building assets with side jobs
Https://mofmof-investor.com/side-job-...
0:52 What is Crude Oil Futures Trading?
2:53 There are various crude oil prices
3:43 What is WTI Crude Oil Futures? Pick up in Cushing, Oklahoma
4:45 Why have crude oil futures prices been negative? Explanation
8:13 Introduction of North Sea Brent Oil Field
9:15 What are the economic implications of lower crude oil prices?
--- SNS etc .----------------------------------
◆ Twitter.
Https://twitter.com/mofmof_investor
◆ Instagram
Https://www.instagram.com/mofmofinves...
◆ Facebook page
Https://ja-jp.facebook.com/pages/cate...
◆ Line @
Delivering behind-the-scenes information about real estate investment that cannot be exposed on the line!
Present property purchase check tool present!
Https://line.me/R/ti/p/%40mof-mof
◆ Sub Channel-Mofubocchi
Https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC5PZ...
◆ Mofumofu Real Estate Blog
Https://mofmof-investor.com
◆ Mofumofu FX Blog
Https://mofmof-investor.com/fx/
◆ E-mail magazine of real estate investment course
Https://mofmof-toushi.com/p/r/JAyoEfxq
--- Self introduction etc .------------------------------------
Who is Mofumofu Real Estate? Self introduction video
Https://youtu.be/9dBNcjUCgx0
Mofumofu Real Estate Mofu Profile
Born in 1980. Born in Tokyo. While continuing my R & D work from 2003, I started investing in real estate in 2014 with the desire to be able to make my own money and to run the company. So far, we have purchased 5 buildings and 2 detached houses. From 2017, we will publish real estate investment information on our blog and start Youtube in 2018. Retired from office worker in 2019. I make money from real estate investment, blogging, and YouTube on my own company.
#Mofumofu -real-estate #japan #Oil
tokyo property 在 環遊世界後的現實世界by Sio Youtube 的最讚貼文
??大阪3天創業移民考察團
?參觀本公司獨家移民項目?與當地定居華人交流創業心得?日本人教你地道日語?接觸大阪政府機關???與移民律師實際對話?每天三餐,交通全包,全程專車?再送你四晚酒店?想了解更多? 即該搵Sio啦~! Whatsapp / Wechat +853-62223891
我們公司 #JPROPERTY株式會社 在東京、大阪、福岡、札幌、香港、澳門、吉隆坡均設有辦事處, 提供一條龍買樓及移民服務, 如果大家想移民日本就找我吧~!
大阪是日本第二大城市
Osaka is the second largest city in Japan
相比東京,物價比較低,人也較熱情
Generally it costs cheaper and people are nicer comparing Tokyo
所以好多人也喜歡在大阪這邊生活
That’s what lots of people enjoy living here
這個影片跟大家介紹大阪的食、住、行、消遣等費用
In this video I will share with you the cost of food, living, transport and leisure in Osaka
到底在這裏生活的人每個月要花多少錢呢
To tell you how much people spend per month in Osaka
#更多移民資訊 ►►► https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLjpekHObUbp6MHico9396ymdjLdUGZm8f
泛歐投資移民有限公司
FB - https://www.facebook.com/paneuro.world
WEB - http://paneuro.world