[學術寫作] Coherence and Cohesion in Writing
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英文寫作強調文字和文意上的連貫,包括字句連貫 (cohesion) 以及語意邏輯連貫 (coherence),也就是說句子和段落之間的詞彙及主題都必須環環相扣。同學們在學習進階英文寫作時,需要多留意這些準則,寫出來的文章才能符合字句連貫 (cohesion) 及語意連貫 (coherence) 兩大原則。
Coherence 一般來說是指將論點與想法合邏輯地安排。從語意的觀點來看,欲寫出思路清晰、邏輯連貫 (coherent) 的文章,需要注意兩大重點: 1. 主題一致 (unity) 整篇文章所傳達的意念需要有一致性,將相同主題的句子放在同一段落。2. 承先啟後 (logical order and transitions) 有系統地和有邏輯地提出論點。在說明論點方面,要按部就班地說明,藉此作者對於自己論點提出足夠的支持理由,使讀者有足夠的資訊來理解作者的想法,如此一來也可使作者的論點更具有說服力和邏輯性。先介紹主題 (topic sentence),然後循序漸進地鋪陳 (major support),最後以最新資訊作結 (details and/or exemplification)。
Cohesion 簡單來說是指用有相關性的單字的語言來串連句子、段落與文章使讀者在易於理解前後文。指標詞(signposts and linking words) 可以加強語意連貫 (cohesion): 1. 主要指標詞: 示意文章中的目的,結構,作者的立場,主要觀點,爭論的方向,和結論。 2. 關聯詞和片語: 呈現出句子和句子與段落和段落的連結。
Cohesion 的詳細說明: http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=17303
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一些主要指標詞:
The aim of this study is to ....
The purpose of this thesis is to ....
This essay argues that ....
The main questions addressed in this paper are ....
This essay critically examines ....
This chapter reviews the literature ....
In conclusion, ....
一些關聯詞:
Indicating order:
First (ly), ... / Second(ly), ... / Finally, ... /
Indicating addition or similarity:
also, ... / additionally, ... / furthermore, ... / similarly, ...
Indicating contrast:
however, ... / nevertheless, ... / on the other hand, ... /
Giving a reason:
for this reason, ... / because ... / because of ... / due to ...
Indicating result or consequence:
therefore, ... / thus, ... / as a result, ... / consequently, ...
Reformulating an idea:
in other words, ... / to put it simply, ... / that is ...
Exemplifying:
for example, ... / for instance, ... / to exemplify, ...
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要讓一段文字的字句有連貫性 (cohesive) 可透過以下方式:
1. 重複 (repetition): 可以在第二句再重複前一句所用過的字彙。
2. 同義字 (synonym): 若不想直接重複字彙,也可以用同義字來代表你想重複單字或其概念。
3. 對稱構句 (parallelism): 重複句子的結構。這個技巧雖是最基本的,但也是製造cohesion的有效的方法之一。
4. 連接詞 (conjunctions and transitions): 使用適當的連接詞或副詞使句子符合邏輯地串聯在一起。
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一段文字可能符合字句上的連貫性 (cohesion) 但不符合語意邏輯上的連貫性(coherence)。文章中要達到 cohesion,在句與句之間必須字彙上主題要有相關,而 coherence 是要達到語意上邏輯上的一致性或相關性。
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1. 有字句連貫(cohesion)及語意連貫 (coherence)
"My favorite color is blue. I like it because it is calming and it relaxes me. I often go outside in the summer and lie on the grass and look into the clear blue sky when I am stressed. For this reason, I'd have to say my favorite color is blue."
Cohesive AND coherent: blue --> calming and relaxing --> clear blue sky --> reduces stress --> blue.
這個句既有字句連貫(cohesion)及語意連貫(coherence)。
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2. 有達到字句連貫(cohesion)但不符合語意連貫(coherence)
"My favorite color is blue. Blue sports cars go very fast. Driving in this way is dangerous and can cause many car crashes. I had a car accident once and broke my leg. I was very sad because I had to miss a holiday in Europe because of the injury."
Cohesive NOT coherent: blue --> sports car --> fast driving --> car crashes --> broken Leg --> very sad --> miss holiday in Europe
如你所見,這段文字間具有相關性 (cohesion),但當這些句子放在同一個段落中卻無法構成意義。文字一開始說明我喜歡藍色但卻以歐洲的旅行作結,語意上的不連貫導致理解困難。
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3. 有達到語意連貫(coherence)但不具有字句連貫(cohesion)
"My favorite color is blue. I'm calm and relaxed. In the summer I lie on the grass and look up."
Coherent NOT cohesive: blue | calm and relaxed | looking up
這段文字語意邏輯上符合一貫性,但缺乏足夠的連接用語 (connector) 把想法串連起來導致整個段落缺乏cohesion,也會造成理解困難。
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字句連貫 (cohesion) 和語意連貫 (coherence) 的教學影片
1. http://tw.91voa.com/home/advanced/ielts/ielts-preparation/3-03-cohesion-coherence-in-writing
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=43AlGwz1Aq0
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mhGnPh84Vkg (Unity, Coherence, Cohesion)
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學術寫作資源 (Writing Resources): http://goo.gl/5HzXvh
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資料來源:
http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=17303
http://www.cavesbooks.com.tw/CET/ArtContent_tw.aspx?CDE=ART201309060959110XI
http://www.criticism.com/da/coherence.php
http://seas3.elte.hu/coursematerial/KormosJudit/appling7.pdf
http://www.encyclo.co.uk/meaning-of-Cohesion
http://www.bothell.washington.edu/wacc/for-students/eslhandbook/coherence
http://www.slideshare.net/nakulrtm/signposting-writing-development-centre-newcastle-university
http://www.coli.uni-saarland.de/courses/discourse-13/contents/slides/slides_lexical_chains.pdf
Image source: http://www.rgd.ca/database/images/SLD_BrandCoherenceStudy_Final.jpg
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心智圖詞彙攻略: https://bit.ly/2OcAJTb
同時也有1部Youtube影片,追蹤數超過46萬的網紅日本語の森,也在其Youtube影片中提到,Hello! Learn Japanese for free with Nihongonomori! Do you want to watch anime without subtitles? Then you found the right place! In Nihongonomori,...
dangerous副詞 在 Eric's English Lounge Facebook 的精選貼文
[詞彙區別] but, however, nevertheless, nonetheless 的用法區別
1. but 是一個對等連接詞,即用來連接字、片語和獨立子句,表示前後所說的意義相反,或連接互相對比的兩個單位。
-It is expensive but useful.
-He enjoys rock climbing by himself, but not mountain hiking with others.
-It's an old car, but I think we can fix it up.
◆ but 前面需要加上逗號的原因是因為後面是完整的句子,或者為了讓句意清楚避免產生混淆,也會使用逗號。現代英文用法中,逗號基本上是說話者在長句中稍加停頓的地方。譬如:She is happy about moving away, but also a little sad. 但是若是句子不算長,而省略逗號並不會影響讀者的瞭解時,逗號省略是可以的 (She is sad but not shocked)。
◆but 的其他用法:
http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/but_1
http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/but
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/but
◆對等連接詞:
http://www.taiwantestcentral.com/Grammar/Title.aspx?ID=61
http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/coordinatingconjunction.htm
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm
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2. however 可當副詞,當連接副詞時是用來轉折語氣。定義是"然而",可以放句前。
however 的用法
https://bit.ly/3cC4kQR
http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/however_1
http://www.taiwantestcentral.com/Grammar/Title.aspx?ID=119
◆而用 however 來轉折語氣時,可放句前但一定要用逗號 (,) 把它從句子其他部份分開。例句:This is a straightforward and effective method. However, it can be dangerous. (有些學者覺得用 However 開始另外一個句子是非正式的用法)。
◆不放逗號時,however 定義是無論如何,不管怎樣 (in whatever manner, to whatever extent, or no matter how: However carefully I explained, she still didn't understand.)。
◆至於 but 可否放在句前呢? 現在越來越多人這樣寫。老一輩的學者說不;但新一代的英文學者認為 but 用於句子開頭表達意思明確而直接,語氣反而比較強。
-It’s a smart and progressive plan. But do you think those changes go far enough?
http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/starting-a-sentence-with-however-right-or-wrong
http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2012/01/can-i-start-a-sentence-with-a-conjunction/
◆如果兩句句子意思緊接,你想用 however 卻不想把它分兩句,可以用分號 (;)。例句:This is a straightforward and effective method; however, it can be dangerous. 這是比較沒有爭議的寫法!
◆最後,however 可用於句子中間,在兩個逗號中出現,用作句子的停頓。甚至這樣子做可以加強 however 之後句子的語氣。
-He was feeling tired. He went to work, however, and tried to concentrate.
-He was feeling tired. He, however, went to work and tried to concentrate.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv206.shtml
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3. nonetheless 等同 nevertheless 定義是"不過仍然",比 however 的用法更為正式, 通常是用在寫作上。一些人會認為使用他們更會強調語氣。
◆Nevertheless 比較常使用在學術寫作出現的比率幾乎是 nonetheless 的一倍。
◆Nevertheless 用在主動的句子 (active voice) , 而 nonetheless 比較常用在被動的句子 (passive voice). 。
Sources:
http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/however_1
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/however
http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/starting-a-sentence-with-however-right-or-wrong
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv206.shtml
http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-between-nonetheless-and-nevertheless/ http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/
詞彙區別 Vocab Q&A: http://tinyurl.com/mzmvsns
dangerous副詞 在 日本語の森 Youtube 的精選貼文
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