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神秘的羅馬數字Roman Numbers
1是I，2是兩個I=II，3是三個I=III，
照理說4應該是四個I，卻寫成IV。
4的意義從5（V）、6（VI）可看得出來。
「5用了一個新的字母V來代表」
6（VI）當然就是5 + 1的意思。
4（IV）則可以解釋成5 - 1。
I擺在V的右邊代表5 + 1（加法）
I擺在V的左邊代表5 - 1（減法）
這樣來看VII代表7，VIII代表8就很合理，
「10是一個新數字，以字母X代表」
IX代表9，XI代表11，XII代表12。
#羅馬 #羅馬數字 #希臘 #Roman #神秘
#旅遊 #learn #古代 #建築 #歐美 #country
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不像中文裡簡單的一到十二月，在許多語言中，各個月份都有屬於自己的名字。
大部分歐洲語言的月份名字來自羅馬神話中的神明，而波蘭的月份名字，則是從農民曆來的！
就讓我們一個個來看它們的起源吧：
Styczeń（一月）：「stykać」意思是會面的意思，代表舊的一年與新的一年在一月彷彿見到彼此一樣連接起來。
Luty（二月）：在古波蘭文中，「luty」表示「強烈的」、「冷霜」、「極寒」。
Marzec（三月）：「marznąć」表示「使……結凍」，也有些人認為這個字來自羅馬神話中的戰神Mars，波文拼法是「Martius」。
Kwiecień（四月）：「kwiecie」表示花兒。在經歷極寒的二到三月後，終於春暖花開。
Maj（五月）：這是唯一一個確認來自羅馬曆的月份名字，女神「Maia」是豐饒、成長之神，在波蘭文中也是同樣的意思。相近的字中，「majowka」代表的則是戶外旅行。
Czerwiec（六月）：波蘭字「czerw」表示抓取，抓取什麼呢？答案是蜜蜂或蛾的幼蟲！在六月，以前的人們會抓幼蟲拿來曬乾，再製成紅色或紫色的顏料。也有人說六月這個波蘭字是來自「czerwiec」，代表變紅或成熟的意思。
Lipiec（七月）：七月的名字來自「lipa」這個表示「椴樹」的波蘭字。椴樹在這個時期開花，在波蘭尤其普遍。波蘭詩人揚·科哈諾夫斯基（Jan Kochanowski）就曾作一首詩：〈關於椴樹（Na lipe）〉，其中一段「gosciu siadz pod ma lipa a odpoczyn sobie」即表示「貴客，請到我的椴樹下歇息」。
Sierpień（八月）：「sierp」代表鐮刀，在這個豐收的季節，鐮刀自然是不可或缺的工具。
Wrzesień（九月）：「wrzosy」表示石楠花，九月時，這種美麗的紫色會在各處盛放。
Październik（十月）：「paździerz」表示亞麻或大麻的木質乾燥部分。從前這兩種植物是用來做布料的，十月的時候，風會帶走田地上所有的製完布料後剩餘的部分，在波蘭文中叫作「paździerze」。
Listopad（十一月）：這個字來自「padajace liscie」，即落葉之意。
Grudzień（十二月）：十二月寒冷的天氣讓地面都結冰了，「gruda」這個字就是指結冰的地面哦！
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了解波蘭月份名字的由來之後，是不是讓你覺得背這些單字更得心應手了呢？
如果這樣的程度太簡單的話，來試試這個跟月份有關的影片吧：
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUXa5Hg_QzI
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Did you know that Poland did not adopt Latin names for months and has its own unique names? Unlike many other European countries that derive the names of the months from the Roman names of gods, caesars' or numbers, Polish names of the months take their origins in farmers' calendar. Check out their unique names in the list below.
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1. Styczeń - stykać means "to meet" - "to join" since the old year "meets the new year in January
2. Luty - luty in old Polish means "fierce", "bitter frost", "freezing cold"
3. Marzec - from marznac meaning " to freeze". Some people believe that this name comes also from Roman God "Martius" - in Polish Mars.
4. Kwiecień - from kwiecie - flowers - a blooming month.
5. Maj - this is the only name which was adopted from Roman calendar devoted to goddess Maia. Maia was the Roman female deity of growth or fertility.This name gained its own meaning in the Polish language, for instance as majowka- the outdoor trip.
6. Czerwiec - from czerw meaning "grab" - the larva of a bee or moth. In this month people were picking up the larves, dry them in the sun, and then made from it a red or purple die (pigment); therefore the name "czerw" comes from "redden" and some sources also derive the name of Polish June from a Polish word "czerwienic" - to redden or rippen
7. Lipiec - from lipa - "linden tree" - which flowers in that time; this tree is very popular in Poland. There is a famous poem by Kochanowski "Na lipe" (about Linden tree) - "gosciu siadz pod ma lipa a odpoczyn sobie" - "dear visitor -please sit under my linden tree and relax".
8. Sierpień - sierp is "a sickle" used for harvesting (tool to cut the hay, grass or wheat)
9. Wrzesień - from wrzosy - "heather" that beautifully purple in that time of the year
10. Październik - from paździerz - wooden dry part remained from flax or hemp. In the past flax and hemp was used for making cloths. In that time of the year the wind was carrying out "paździerze" - the wooden waste remained after flax and hemp - all over the fields.
11. Listopad - padajace liscie - falling leaves.
12. Grudzień - gruda - hardened ground which is caused by cold weather.
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To see more about months in Polish, you can watch this video (in Polish):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HBNroYoYQiY
(Adapted from culture.polishsite.us)
當年今日：坎尼會戰
Today in Military History: 2 August 216 BC - Hannibal Barca wins his greatest victory over the Romans at Cannae.
After the start of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginian general Hannibal boldly crossed the Alps and invaded Italy. Winning battles at Trebia (218 BC) and Lake Trasimene (217 BC), Hannibal moved south plundering the countryside and working to make Rome's allies defect to Carthage's side. In the spring of 216 BC, Hannibal seized the Roman supply depot at Cannae in southeast Italy. With Hannibal sitting astride Rome's supply lines, the Roman Senate called for action. Assembling a massive army of nearly 87,000 men, the Consuls Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus advanced to face the Carthaginians.
The two armies met along the banks of the Aufidus River on 31 July and began skirmishing. On 2 August, Varro and Paullus formed up their army for battle with their infantry densely packed in the center and the cavalry on the wings. The Consuls planned to use the infantry to quickly break the Carthaginian lines. Opposite, Hannibal placed his cavalry and most veteran infantry on the wings and his lighter infantry in the center. As the two sides advanced, Hannibal's center moved forward, causing their line to bow in a crescent shape. On the Hannibal's left, his cavalry charged forward and routed the Roman horse.
To the right, Hannibal's cavalry was engaged with that of Rome's allies. Having destroyed their opposite number on the left, the Carthaginian cavalry rode behind the Roman army and assaulted the allied cavalry from the rear. Under attack from two directions, the allied cavalry fled the field. As the infantry began to engage, Hannibal had his center slowly retreat, while ordering the infantry on the wings to hold their position. The tightly packed Roman infantry continued to advance after the retreating Carthaginians, unaware of the trap that was about to be sprung.
As the Romans were drawn in, Hannibal ordered the infantry on his wings to turn and attack the Roman flanks. This was coupled with a massive assault on the Roman rear by the Carthaginian cavalry, which completely surrounded the Consuls' army. Trapped, the Romans became so compressed that many did not have space to raise their weapons. To speed the victory, Hannibal ordered his men to cut the hamstrings of each Roman and then move on to the next, commenting that the lamed could be slaughtered later at the Carthaginian's leisure.
Various accounts of the Battle of Cannae show that numbers range from 50,000-70,000 casualties for the Romans, with 3,500-4,500 taken prisoner. It has also been said that approximately 14,000 were able to cut their way out and reach the town of Canusium. Hannibal's army suffered around 6,000 killed and 10,000 wounded.
It is regarded as one of the greatest tactical feats in military history and, in numbers killed, the second greatest defeat of Rome, after the Battle of Arausio.
Images: (Left) Hannibal counting the signet rings of the Roman knights killed during the battle, statue by Sébastien Slodtz, 1704, Louvre.
(Right) The Death of Aemilius Paulus by John Trumbull, 1773.
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Is Religion banned? Will you get your organs harvested for practicing your faith in China? Will you be oppressed and suppressed? Will you be arrested? Are there Churches in China?
The Taiping Rebellion was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the Boxer Rebellion was in part a reaction against Christianity in China. Christians in China established the first modern clinics and hospitals, and provided the first modern training for nurses. Both Roman Catholics and Protestants founded numerous educational institutions in China from the primary to the university level. Some of the most prominent Chinese universities began as religious-founded institutions. Missionaries worked to abolish practices such as foot binding, and the unjust treatment of maidservants, as well as launching charitable work and distributing food to the poor. They also opposed the opium trade and brought treatment to many who were addicted. Some of the early leaders of the Chinese Republic, such as Sun Yat-sen were converts to Christianity and were influenced by its teachings. By 1921, Harbin, Manchuria's largest city, had a Russian population of around 100,000, constituting a large part of Christianity in the city.
Christianity, especially in its Protestant form, gained momentum in China between the 1980s and the 1990s, but in the following years, folk religion recovered more rapidly and in greater numbers than Christianity (or Buddhism). One scholar noted that "the Christian God then becomes one in a pantheon of local gods among whom the rural population divides its loyalties".
Protestants in the early twenty-first century, including both official and unofficial churches, had between 25 and 35 million adherents. Catholics were not more than 10 million. Other demographic analyses found that an average 2–4% of the population of China claims a Christian affiliation. Christians were unevenly distributed geographically. The only provinces in which they constituted a population significantly larger than 1 million persons are Henan, Anhui and Zhejiang. Protestants are characterised by a prevalence of people living in the countryside, women, illiterates and semi-literates, and elderly people.
A significant number of members of churches unregistered with the government, and of their pastors, belong to the Koreans of China.[334] Christianity has a strong presence in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, in Jilin. The Christianity of Yanbian Koreans has a patriarchal character; Korean churches are usually led by men, in contrast to Chinese churches which more often have female leadership. For instance, of the 28 registered churches of Yanji, only three of which are Chinese congregations, all the Korean churches have a male pastor while all the Chinese churches have a female pastor. Also, Korean church buildings are stylistically very similar to South Korean churches, with big spires surmounted by large red crosses. Yanbian Korean churches have been a matter of controversy for the Chinese government because of their links to South Korean churches.
In recent decades the Communist Party of China has become more tolerant of Christian churches outside party control, despite looking with distrust on organizations with international ties. The government and Chinese intellectuals tend to associate Christianity with subversive Western values, and many churches have been closed or destroyed. Since the 2010s policies against Christianity have been extended also to Hong Kong.
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